Volume 10, Nos. 1 & 2 (January & April 2001)

PAPERS

Geology of North American Palladium Ltd.’s Roby Zone Deposit, Lac des Iles
M.J. Lavigne & M.J. Michaud

Abstract — North American Palladium Ltd. operates its Lac des Iles open pit palladium mine 85 km north of the city of Thunder Bay, Ontario. The Roby Zone deposit occurs within the mafic/ultramafic Lac des Iles Intrusive Complex (LDI-IC), which was created by multiple pulses of magma of varying composition within several closely spaced chambers. Chaotic lithological distribution, the presence of magmatic breccias, and the rarity of rhythmic layering suggest a dynamic intrusive environment with disruptive magma pulses. As of December 31, 2001, measured and indicated resources for the 950 m long by 815 m wide Roby Zone deposit totalled 159 Mt grading 1.55 g/t Pd, 0.17 g/t Pt, 0.12 g/t Au, 0.05% Cu, and 0.05% Ni at a palladium cut-off grade of 0.7 g/t. The Roby Zone contains an additional 73 Mt of inferred resources at similar grades. The Roby Zone is dominated by varitextured gabbro containing pipes and pods of breccia, and large blocks (~60 m across) of varying lithology. Mineralization at Lac des Iles occurs as: (1) a PGE- and base metal-rich magmatic matrix of breccia (breccia ore); (2) mineralized dikes or sills (gabbronorite in North Roby ore); (3) lower-grade mineralization in varitextured units that are host to the distinctive breccia ore and envelope the North Roby ore; and (4) high-grade mineralization associated with strong silicate alteration exemplified by high-grade ore. The close spatial association of the mineralized breccias with both varitextured units and silicate alteration leads to an interpretation that the energetic magma that created breccia was charged with a dissolved fluid, and that this deuteric fluid exsolved at high temperatures to migrate through crystal mush, enhancing crystallization along its pathways, resulting in variable grain size. This transformation occurred at high temperature and produced sulfide-poor, varitextured gabbro-hosted mineralization exemplified by some of the mineralization in the North Roby Zone, and also found throughout the Roby Zone. The association of hydrous silicate alteration with mineralization can be explained by continuing fluid migration during cooling and continued metal transport.
© 2002 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.

Résumé — North American Palladium Ltd. opère la mine à ciel ouvert de Lac des Iles située à 85 km au nord de Thunder Bay, Ontario. Le gisement Roby Zone est encaissé dans le complexe mafique/ultramafique de Lac des Iles (LDI-IC), lequel représente une intrusion polyphasée créée par plusieurs pulses magmatiques de différente composition à l’intérieur de chambres magmatiques fermés. La distribution chaotique des lithologies, la présence de brèches magmatiques, et la quasi-absence de litage rythmique suggèrent un environnement magmatique dynamique perturbé par l’introduction de nouveau magma. Au 31 décembre 2001, les ressources mesurées et indiquées s’élevaient à 159 millions de tonnes titrant 1,55 g/t Pd, 0,17 g/t Pt, 0,12 g/t Au, 0,05% Cu, et 0,05% Ni, pour une teneur de coupure de 0,7 g/t Pd. De plus, la Roby Zone contient 73 millions de tonnes de ressources inférées à une teneur similaire. La Roby Zone est principalement encaissée dans un gabbro de texture hétérogène (varitextured) caractérisé par des cheminées et des lentilles de brèches et des énormes blocs (environ 60 m de diamètre) de plusieurs lithologies. Au Lac des Iles, la minéralisation en EGP et en métaux de base se retrouve dans la matrice magmatique de brèches (breccia ore), dans des dykes ou des sills minéralisés (gabbronorite dans la zone North Roby ore), comme minerai de basse teneur encaissant le minerai de brèche (breccia ore) et enveloppant la zone North Roby. Du minerai de haute teneur est également associé avec une forte altération en silicates dans la zone high-grade ore. L’étroite association spatiale entre les brèches minéralisées et les unités de texture variée (varitextured) et l’altération en silicate suggère que le magma énergique qui a causé la bréchification était chargé de fluides. Ces fluides deutériques, exsolvés à haute température, auraient alors circulé à travers la masse de cristaux favorisant ainsi la cristallisation le long de leur parcours et produisant ainsi la variation de granulométrie observée. Cette transformation s’est produite à haute température et a produit une minéralisation pauvre en sulfures dans le gabbro à texture varié, comme celle retrouvée dans la North Roby Zone ainsi que qu’un peu partout dans la Roby Zone. L’altération en silicates hydratés associée à la minéralisation est expliquée par la migration continue de fluides chargés de métaux durant le refroidissement de l’intrusion.

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The Geological Setting and Estimation of Gold Grade of the High-grade Zone, Red Lake Mine, Goldcorp Inc.
Tim Twomey & Stephen McGibbon

Abstract — The High-grade Zone (HGZ) was discovered 5000 ft (1520 m) below surface in the hangingwall of the existing orebody, 46 years after the Red Lake mine first went into production. The very rich ore of the HGZ is characterized by a remarkably abundant distribution of visible native gold. The location of this discovery challenged conventional wisdom at the time and its genesis has yet to be fully understood. Textural observations of ore within carbonate veins as well as crosscutting relationships suggest peak-metamorphic emplacement for at least some of the gold. Post-lamprophyre dike remobilization of gold is locally observed in the HGZ. Structure and dilatancy were the key elements for localizing ore at the Red Lake mine. Ore occurs where a fault trend intersected folded ultramafic volcanic rock that created a semi-permeable cap-rock to ore fluids ascending the “feeder” structure. This was enhanced by strong competency contrasts between the eastern ultramafic rocks, felsic volcanic rocks west of the HGZ, and the mafic volcanic host to ore – an exceptional environment for the development of protracted dilatant fluid pathways for gold deposition. Development in the HGZ began in February 2000 and reached commercial production on January 1, 2001 at a capital cost of US $53 million. December 2001 reserves are 1.9 million short tons (1.73 Mt) at an average cut and diluted grade of 2.05 ounces per ton gold (70.5 g/t) containing 3.8 million ounces of gold. The extremely rich ore presented a unique challenge in grade estimation for the Geology Department at the mine. The historic cutting factor was replaced by a statistical method as more data were collected from mining and mill reconciliation. The mine produced 503 000 ounces of gold in 2001. Exploration at the mine is targeting HGZ-type ore formation within basalts associated with the intersections of fluid pathways and folded ultramafic rocks, as well as other targets.
© 2002 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.

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Geology of the Palladium-rich Legris Lake Mafic-Ultramafic Complex, Western Wabigoon Subprovince, Northwestern Ontario
Neil T. Pettigrew & Kéiko H. Hattori

Abstract — The Legris Lake Complex is a northeast-trending, 7.3 km long by 3.5 km wide, mafic-ultramafic intrusive complex located in the western Wabigoon Subprovince of the Archean Superior Province. It is one of a series of mafic-ultramafic igneous complexes, the most notable of which is the Lac des Iles Complex, host to Canada’s only producing Pd mine with reserves of 93.5 Mt grading 1.53 g/t Pd as of December 2001 (North American Palladium Ltd., Annual Report 2001). Cu-Ni-PGE mineralization was first discovered in the Legris Lake Complex by a local prospector late in 1999. Shortly thereafter, the property was jointly optioned by Avalon Ventures Ltd. and Starcore Resources Ltd., who continue to discover significant Cu-Ni-PGE mineralization. One of the most notable features of the Legris Lake Complex is the occurrence of extensive brecciation caused by multiple injections of volatile-rich magma. The Cu-Ni-PGE mineralization is hosted by leucogabbro within a 2 km long by 600 m wide, highly brecciated area in the northwestern area of the Complex. The mineralized rocks contain disseminated to blebby sulfides (1 to 5 vol.%), comprising chalcopyrite + pyrite ± pyrrhotite + millerite ± pentlandite, typically surrounded by epidote. The majority of the Cu-Ni-PGE mineralization displays low ratios of Pt/Pd (~0.20) and high ratios of Cu/Ni (~2.9), which are similar to those of the Lac des Iles and the River Valley mafic-ultramafic complexes. The lithologies in Legris Lake Complex bear similarities to the heterolithic gabbro of the Twilight and Roby Zone deposits at the nearby Lac des Iles mine. However, the mineralization at Legris Lake, which is restricted to leucogabbro overlying unmineralized clinopyroxenite, is similar to that of stratiform deposits such as the Stillwater and Munni Munni complexes. The mineralization at Legris Lake is best explained by the late-stage, immiscible separation of a sulfide melt from volatile-rich parental magmas and the subsequent minor redistribution of metals by deuteric fluids.
© 2002 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.

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Geology of the Two Duck Lake Intrusion and the Marathon Cu-PGE Deposit, Coldwell Complex, Northern Ontario
Richard Dahl, David H. Watkinson & Richard P. Taylor

Abstract — Detailed mapping of the Eastern Gabbro, Coldwell Complex, Ontario, revealed that the copper and platinum-group-element deposit on the Marathon property is confined to a coarse-grained to pegmatitic gabbro-diorite intrusion, the Two Duck Lake intrusion (TDLI). Exposed along the eastern boundary of the Coldwell Complex, the TDLI was emplaced as a sill whose orientation is slightly oblique to the general structure of the Eastern Gabbro. The TDLI has been subdivided into lower, middle and upper sub-units on the bases of lithological, textural, mineralogical, and geochemical criteria. Both border sub-units are sulfide-, base- and precious metal-enriched, and exhibit abundant evidence of host-rock assimilation. The primary mineral assemblage in the TDLI is plagioclase, olivine, clinopyroxene, Fe-Ti oxides, with accessory orthopyroxene, biotite, apatite; this primary mineral assemblage is essentially preserved in the core of the intrusion (i.e., the middle sub-unit). The Cu-PGE Marathon deposit, delineated mainly in the upper sub-unit of the intrusion, consists of disseminated Fe-Cu-Ni sulfides, and platinum-group-minerals derived by hydrothermal remobilization from primary magmatic sulfides. Enrichment in Cu and PGE resulted from partial replacement of original Fe-Ti oxides and pyrrhotite in the primary mineral assemblage by reaction with (a) residual magmatic fluid, and (b) fluids derived from the breakdown of host rock xenoliths and hydrothermal alteration along the lower contact of the TDLI.
© 2002 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.

Résumé — La cartographie détaillée de l’Eastern Gabbro, Complexe Coldwell, en Ontario, révèle que le gisement de cuivre et éléments du groupe du platine de Marathon est confiné à une intrusion gabbro-dioritique, de grain grossier à pegmatitique, l’intrusion Two Duck Lake (TDLI). Cette intrusion s’est mise en place sous la forme d’un filon-couche légèrement discordant sur la structure de la bordure orientale de l’Eastern Gabbro. On y distingue trois sous-unités, inférieure, centrale et supérieure, sur la base de zonations lithologique, minéralogique et géochimique. Les sous-unités marginales sont enrichies en sulfures, métaux usuels et précieux, et montrent de nombreux indices d’assimilation des roches hôtes. La paragenèse minérale primaire inclut le plagioclase, l’olivine, le clinopyroxène, les oxydes ferro-titanés et accessoirement et localement, l’orthopyroxène, la biotite et l’apatite : cet assemblage est surtout préservé au coeur de l’intrusion (sous-unité centrale). Le gisement de Cu-EGP de Marathon, situé principalement dans la sous-unité supérieure, comprend une minéralisation disséminées à sulfures de fer, cuivre, nickel, et minéraux du groupe du platine, dérivés de sulfures magmatiques primaires par remobilisation hydrothermale. L’enrichissement en Cu et EGP résulte du remplacement d’oxydes ferro-titanés primaires par réaction avec des fluides tardi-magmatiques, et des fluides assimilés le long de la bordure inférieure de l’intrusion, dérivés de la fusion partielle des xénolites et de remobilisations hydrothermales.

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Diamond Exploration in Northern Ontario with Reference to the Victor Kimberlite, Near Attawapiskat
J.A. Fowler, H.S. Grüter, J.M. Kong & B.D. Wood

Abstract — The phased approach used by De Beers for diamond exploration is briefly outlined. The Victor kimberlite is one of 19 kimberlites in a cluster near Attawapiskat, Ontario. The progress at the Victor kimberlite is summarized, and the operations are described within the framework of this staged approach. An evaluation program is currently under way on the Victor kimberlite, but although results are encouraging, insufficient diamonds have been recovered to permit disclosure of estimates for the grade and value.
© 2002 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.

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Geology of the Cargill Township Residual Carbonatite-associated Phosphate Deposit, Kapuskasing, Ontario
Reno Pressacco

Abstract — Agrium Inc. is a world leader in the production, distribution, and marketing of agricultural products and services in both North America and Argentina. The new phosphate mine and mill complex located southwest of Kapuskasing, Ontario, was constructed to replace an offshore supply of phosphate rock, and produces a high-grade phosphate concentrate. The Cargill Township Carbonatite Complex is one of a series of carbonatite complexes in the region that are hosted by the 1.9 Ga aged Kapuskasing Structural Zone. The carbonatites in the mine area have intruded Archean gneissic granodiorite rocks of the Wawa Subprovince, and metasedimentary rocks of the Quetico Subprovince. The Cargill Carbonatite Complex displays a typical concentric zonation pattern from an outer ring of alkalic pyroxenites, through an inner ring of sövite-carbonatite, to a central core of rauhaugite-carbonatite. The initial carbonatite intrusion and subsequent residual orebody have been modified by faulting such that the northwestern third of the complex has been displaced approximately 2.5 km northeast. The phosphate ores are composed principally of residual apatite sands that were formed by the weathering and dissolution of the soluble minerals of the carbonatite protolith. These ores are subdivided by their iron content into high grade (A ores) and lower grade (B1 and B2) ores. They are separated from the primary unweathered carbonatite by a layer of saprolite, whose thickness varies depending upon the composition of the underlying carbonatite. Cretaceous waste materials consisting of well-sorted silica/kaolinite sand and peat deposits are typically found to stratigraphically overlie the ores. A minor amount of the ore feed comes from cemented phosphate ores. All rock types are covered by Pleistocene glacial tills and clays.
© 2002 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.

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The Nature and Distribution of Tantalum-bearing Minerals in Newly Discovered, Rare-Element Pegmatites at the Musselwhite Mine, Northwestern Ontario
Richard P. Taylor & Rod Henham

Abstract — Newly discovered pegmatites distributed throughout the sub-surface environs of the Musselwhite Archean gold deposit occur as narrow dikes that intrude most of the major lithological units. The mineralogy and textures of the pegmatite dikes are characteristic of granitic pegmatites of the “Rare-Element Class”; more specifically, they closely resemble varieties of the “Complex-type” granitic pegmatites that are commonly associated with zones of tantalum mineralization. The essential minerals in the dikes comprise albite, quartz, and K-feldspar, together with lesser amounts of mica (including lepidolite), spessartine, tourmaline, and locally, spodumene. Fine-grained (30 µm to 300 µm), tantalum-bearing minerals occur in the quartzo-feldspathic matrix of the dikes as disseminations, in interstices, and in small vugs. The nature of the tantalum-bearing mineral assemblage present in individual pegmatite dikes varies from a simple mineral assemblage composed of ferrocolumbite (with around 39 wt% Ta2O5) in the most northerly dike, to more complex assemblages comprised of manganotantalite (with up to 75 wt% Ta2O5), ferrotapiolite (with up to 79 wt% Ta2O5), and microlite (with up to 76 wt% Ta2O5) that are present in dikes located several kilometers to the south and southwest. The compositional characteristics and textural relationships of the tantalum-bearing minerals in the dikes provide evidence of igneous fractionation trends that are typical of rare-element granitic pegmatites. Such trends suggest that the newly discovered pegmatites represent part of a more extensive group of cogenetic, tantalum-mineralized dikes.
© 2002 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.

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Post-magmatic Remobilization of Platinum-Group Elements in the Kelly Lake Ni-Cu Sulfide Deposit, Copper Cliff Offset, Sudbury
Wanda M. Carter, David H. Watkinson & Peter C. Jones

Abstract — Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and pentlandite are the dominant sulfide minerals in the 740 zone of the Kelly Lake orebody (Inco Ltd.), Copper Cliff Offset, Sudbury. Petrographic and quantitative electron microprobe analyses of minerals, from sulfide assemblages and host quartz diorite, of the 740 deposit have revealed three processes that have affected sulfide mineralization and associated sulfarsenide and platinum-group-mineral (PGM) distribution: magmatic, hydrothermal, and tectonic. Accessory, zoned cobaltite, and gersdorffite occur in sulfides as a result of these three processes, and PGM occur dominantly in hydrothermally remobilized and deformed ores. Where PGM are present in sulfarsenides they provided nuclei for sulfarsenide growth. Solitary PGM are orders of magnitude larger than those PGM found within sulfarsenide minerals. Five varieties of PGM occur, michenerite and sperrylite being the most common, with lesser froodite, hollingworthite, and ruarsite. The effect of a deformation is a localized fabric in the ore, revealed by pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite bands; pentlandite porphyroblasts also partially define the foliation. The deformed ore is also characterized by alteration of the adjacent quartz diorite, which produced an alteration assemblage including almandine garnet, Fe-rich biotite, and chlorite.
© 2002 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.

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Cu-Ni-PGE Mineralization within the Copper Cliff Offset Dike, Copper Cliff North Mine, Sudbury, Ontario: Evidence for Multiple Stages of Emplacement
J.H. Rickard & D.H. Watkinson

Abstract — Detailed petrographic and quantitative (electron microprobe, SEM-EDS) mineral-chemical analyses of sulfide ore from the 100 orebody at the Copper Cliff North mine, Copper Cliff, Ontario, reveal numerous stages of ore development. Sharp contacts between weakly mineralized quartz diorite and blebby to massive sulfides indicate multiple intrusive events within the Copper Cliff offset dike. A spatial association of sulfides and hydrous minerals, such as amphibole, biotite, chlorite and epidote, suggests that most primary ore has been affected by later hydrothermal fluids. Sulfides are often enclosed or bordered by these secondary silicate phases. The ore consists primarily of pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite, with trace michenerite, cobaltite/gersdorffite, irarsite, hessite, tsumoite, and bismuth tellurides. Geological and petrological comparison of the 100 orebody and the adjacent 900 and 890 orebodies has revealed distinct similarities in ore distribution. Data show that the 100 orebody is depleted in platinum-group elements (PGE) relative to the 900 orebody. Platinum-group elements from the 100 orebody may have been hydrothermally remobilized and partly emplaced in the 900 orebody, in adjacent veins, or in magmatic breccia. Analysis of Cu, Ni, and PGE assay data of ore samples has characterized their distribution among the eight different ore textures in the orebody. There is a strong association between Pt and interstitial sulfide, and to a lesser extent massive sulfide, but little correlation between chalcopyrite-rich ore and PGE in the 100 orebody, unlike many other deposits in the Sudbury region.
© 2002 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.

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Fluid-inclusion Data for Vein-type Cu-Ni-PGE Footwall Ores, Sudbury Igneous Complex and Their Use in Establishing an Exploration Model for Hydrothermal PGE-enrichment Around Mafic-Ultramafic Intrusions
Ferenc Molnár & David H. Watkinson

Abstract — Cu-Ni-PGE footwall ore deposits were studied in the McCreedy East and Whistle mines along the North Range, and the Lindsley and Little Stobie mines along the South Range of the Sudbury Igneous Complex. The footwall ores in these localities differ from typical magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE deposits in the Sudbury mining camp: they have higher Cu/Ni ratios, higher PGE content, vein-like appearance and ubiquitous association of ore with hydrous silicates. Results of comparative fluid inclusion petrography and microthermometry of footwall ores indicate that high temperatures (300°C to 480°C) and heavy-metal rich saline (up to about 40 NaCl equivalent wt% salinity) fluids were associated with the formation of the PGE-rich footwall ores at moderately high pressures (around 2 kbars). However, several, possibly independent fluid circulation stages were also found at the different localities and there also are differences in detailed characteristics for ore-forming fluids especially comparing data from the North Range and the South Range. Thus, in addition to the high temperature and salinity of fluids, there are local variations in the nature of hydrothermal processes. These differences may be related to the diverse origin of fluids (magmatic, metamorphic, and formational brines) and their differing extents of interaction with the compositionally different footwall lithologies.
© 2002 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.

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Abstracts - Sustainable Mining in the 21st Century (SUM21): A Workshop for Geoscientists

The Endeavour hot vents: Sustainable mineral source or alienated area? Benjamin Ainsworth, Vancouver, British Columbia, ainsjenk@telus.net Abstract — The sulfide-rich “Black Smokers,” mineral-bearing hot springs on the floor of the deep oceans, have great potential to be a truly sustainable source of metals and other natural resources in the near future. While Canadian hot vents have been alienated, for the time being, from any possibility of harvest, the government of Papua New Guinea and others have seen fit to encourage the exploration and development of similar systems in their jurisdictions. The technical problems of working with remotely operated equipment at depths of 2000 m are solvable. Mining machines operate in excess of 200 m depth today and the new materials and the necessary technology for control, guidance and positioning are available. A generation of video game players is available to act as operators of the harvesting systems. We should encourage the development of our knowledge of the oceans and allow Canadians access to very important sources of new wealth that can be harvested sustainably from our natural resources in the oceans. We should enhance the ability of Canadians to compete internationally in marine sciences, technological development and marine industries. We should be proactive in developing the practical environmental regulation of the resource harvest by developing that harvest. All of the stakeholders should be consulted in the process of defining access to resources and a careful ear should be given to those who can convert research expense to the generation of sustainable economic activities. We owe it to our successors to offer them pointers to global solutions and not restrict their options or choices by alienating areas as special preserves for elite technocrats as was done with the Black Smokers of the Middle Valley in the Canadian EEZ. Canadian technology has already been in the vanguard of the deep ocean and other space exploration. Canadian remote sensing and capability for remote operation of machinery is already part of our existing library of solutions to the problems represented by having a harvest 2 km away from the operator. The mineral deposits are still being formed and may continue to contribute to metal production for a period of time that is very long in human terms. “Forever” may be an exaggeration of the time line for a claim of total sustainability, but the Pyramids are very young compared to these systems. Also, the manner in which these deposits can be harvested could give a multi-faceted benefit in addition to the recovery of metals from the sea floor and reduce the non-sustainable impacts made by land-based mining. UP

The role of geoscience in attracting sustainable development investment — A report from the World Mines Ministries Forum 2002 C.D. Anglin, J. Boon & S.B. Green, Geological Survey of Canada, Earth Sciences Sector, Natural Resources Canada, anglin@nrcan.gc.ca Abstract — The second World Mines Ministries Forum (WMMF) was held at the Metro Toronto Convention Centre from March 13 to 15, 2002 to explore issues raised in the 2000 Forum as well as introduce new topics crucial to sustainable mineral development practices for the 21st century. The six themes, covered in the plenary and breakout sessions were: Mining and People, convened by The World Bank; Creating a Positive Investment Climate, convened by Aird & Berlis LLP & McMillan Binch; The Role of Geoscience in Attracting Investment, convened by Natural Resources Canada; Governance Issues in the Mining Sector/MMSD, convened by International Institute for Environment and Sustainable Development; Sustainable Development: The Road to Johannesburg Summit 2002, convened by Natural Resources Canada; and Regulator’s Workshop: Dealing with Voluntary Codes of Conduct, convened by the United Nations Environment Programme. Several hundred delegates, including ministers, senior government staff, industry representatives, and stakeholder groups from more than 50 jurisdictions around the world attended the Forum. The WMMF offers a unique forum for government representatives to meet and exchange best practices and recent advances in regulation, legislation, government services, fiscal and taxation policy and investment attraction issues. The Role of Geoscience in Attracting Investment workshop (hosted by Natural Resources Canada) was focussed on discussing the role of geological surveys around the world. The premise of the workshop was that survey organizations have two main mandates: the first is focussed on providing geoscience information and expertise to help address issues of domestic health, safety and environmental well being, and includes such activities as: delineating areas prone to seismic risk or landslides; groundwater quality, and urban planning. The second key mandate is related to providing the geoscience knowledge and expertise needed to help maximize and manage development based on natural resources present within the Survey’s jurisdiction. This latter mandate was the focus of the workshop discussions. The general conclusions from workshop presentations and open discussion include: - Geoscience is important to attract investment, but it is not the only factor, and the other factors vary by jurisdiction, i.e., political stability, taxation, land access, etc. - Of all of these factors, geoscience information is the easiest and least expensive factor for governments to influence. - Other factors being equal, provision of publicly available geoscience information can be quite effective at increasing the investment attractiveness of the jurisdiction. - Free access to data — “The Goldcorp Approach” — can stimulate exploration interest. - The role of government surveys is to provide data, interpretation, and knowledge, and not to do exploration; however, the level of the value-added effort depends on the jurisdiction and its clients’ needs. - A knowledgeable workforce is also key to the competitiveness of a jurisdiction: partnerships with universities and colleges are key for training the next generation of geoscientists. - Investors are not the key target for geoscience information. In the context of the international perspective of the WMMF and topics crucial to sustainable mineral development practices for the 21st century, a key issue discussed in this workshop was the Role of Geoscience as International Aid. Numerous issues were raised, including: - What can be done to assist smaller countries, particularly in eastern Europe and central Asia, that have suffered political and/or economic upheaval, and do not have the means, including the ‘corporate’ memory and geoscientific capacity, to produce a useful geoscience database in order to attract mineral investment? - Surveys from the more developed countries have supplied aid of this type in the past and should continue to do so, but not at the expense of their own jurisdictional work. - The link between poverty alleviation and the development of mines and a mineral industry in less developed countries needs to be made more obvious to international development funding agencies. - Many of the less developed countries need geological assistance and education as international aid, not as loans and targeted purchasing agreements. - Many governments do not value geoscience information, and/or do not allow that information to be released. This attitude interferes with their ability to attract investment. - Geoscience aid to developing countries will be useful not just for attracting mineral investment and development, but should also be promoted for a variety of uses including environmental studies, infrastructure development and land use decisions, natural hazard identification, and disaster mitigation, etc. Discussions are currently under way with representatives of the WMMF Advisory Board to make the Role of Geoscience as International Aid a plenary and workshop topic for the next WMMF in 2004. In addition, significant interest in pursuing discussions on this topic was expressed by participants at the workshop and mechanisms for continuing this dialogue are at present being developed. Further information regarding the World Mines Ministries Forum is available at www.wmmf.org/ UP

The mine life cycle John Gadsby, North Vancouver, British Columbia, jgadsby@attglobal.net or jgadsby@telus.net Abstract — The mine life cycle covers all six stages of a mine from exploration through to post-closure in perpetuity use of the site. The period from exploration through to decommissioning and final closure of the site may typically take a minimum of 40 years and in excess of 100 years. During these periods, the needs and perceptions of politicians, the public, mine owners, and other stakeholders will change. This presentation discusses the historical development of the mine life cycle over the past 40 years and some of the principal economical, social, and environmental drivers that affect the different stages of the mine life cycle and how they relate to the long-term objectives of sustainable development. UP

Reserve reconciliation — Measuring the efficiency of mineral extraction Callum Grant, Vancouver Office, cgrant@hatch.ca Abstract — The efficient use of mineral resources is a key aspect of the debate on sustainability, but is often poorly understood within the larger community of a civil society which identifies mining as a negative contributor to society and the environment. The transfer of resources to reserves occurs under the influence of various factors, some technical and economic, others non-technical, and some designed to transfer an optimum amount of “economic rent” to society through local and federal government intervention. The optimum mix of these factors should, in theory, lead to the best possible use of a given natural resource. However, measuring the efficiency of the process is complicated at the mine level where reconciliation and metal accounting practices vary widely from one operation to the next. This brief session will summarize the principal factors influencing the reconciliation of mineral resources and reserves with actual metal production. The intent will be to discuss the application of reconciliation systems as a measure of extraction efficiency and as a means of demonstrating to the public at large how we are utilizing scarce mineral resources. UP

Human rights and the minerals industry: Challenges and trends Simon Handelsman, Global Issues (Natural Resources & Finance), sdh@pobox.com Abstract — Mining companies have been criticized for their complicity in the human rights abuses of people and indigenous populations at risk. The topic is complicated and important to both the minerals industry and society. This presentation provides a background and examines issues related to specific points of conflict concerning human rights where geoscientists working for mineral exploration and development companies find themselves involved, i.e., the use of security companies to protect operations; the rights of indigenous people in the areas of mining operations; issues of conflict that revolve around labor rights, especially the rights to organize; issues of pariah (or failing) states, such as Burma (Myanmar) which are human rights abusers; and issues of conflict between sub-jurisdictions and national jurisdiction, and to what extent the mining company is subject to one or another when the two are in conflict. The principal reasons why the subject of human rights and the minerals industry is important to geoscientists are described, i.e., the points of conflict; pressure from civil society organizations and inter-governmental agencies for mining corporations to engage in positive activity for the support of human rights; the relationship of rights (especially economic, social, and cultural rights) to sustainable community development in the vicinity (impact zone) of mines is cause for concern; and the rights of stakeholders to be engaged in decisions related to mine development, operations, and closure, including a broader group of stakeholders: the development rights of communities, inter-generation rights, and the right to determine whether resources should be developed. The discussion covers the roles and responsibilities of various parties including companies, NGOs, host government, home government, financial and multilateral institutions, etc. Human rights issues are perceived by geoscientists to be in the social-political realm and not in the technical realm, i.e., outside their expertise. The implications of different approaches to human rights by mining companies are considered. Some comments are included on developing guidelines, benchmarks, monitoring, and verification of human rights behavior. An assessment of the measures and behavior required by geoscientists working in the minerals industry to find a way forward to engage positively beyond the labor and environmental issues they normally deal with, implies the development of their social and political skills. This engagement on human rights is essential to satisfy the demands of all segments of society and the interests of the broad range of stakeholders in the mineral development cycle. UP

A practical initiative: The W.S. Fyfe Chair in Natural Resources and Sustainable Development Robert W. Hodder, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, rhodder@uwo.ca Abstract — By the turn of the century, focus on environmental stewardship had broadened into sustainable development of ecology and economy. This shift to a more holistic consideration of how to maintain quality of life now and for the future has fostered considerable discussion within resource industries about integration and use of knowledge and skills to define and research specific problems. There is, however, less attention to the practicality of who will do this work, and where, and to the development of a positive advocacy that will continue to engage interest and rational discussion. It seems obvious that significant results will require education of earth scientists, and a community, in the totality of life support systems. To this end, a committee of persons from industry and the University of Western Ontario have initiated the W.S. Fyfe Chair in Natural Resources and Sustainable Development. The vision of the Fyfe Chair is that of a new and extra teaching, research, and advocacy position that leads in developing and transferring basic knowledge and applied skills of earth sciences for discovery, development, and use of natural resources. Implicit in this vision is a consciousness of the need for teaching and research of specific science in the context of responsible environmental stewardship and sustainability. This is the legacy of Bill Fyfe’s remarkable career in teaching and researching the quantitative aspects of earth sciences and resource development within the qualitative context of sustainability. He has tirelessly advocated that education, ecology, and economies are inextricably linked. The Chair has as its product an internationally competitive earth scientist sensitive to the issues of sustainability. It has a tradition and a site within a vibrant Department of Earth Sciences, and support of a growing constituency of contributors to its endowment. It is the objective of the Committee to have the Chair occupied by mid-2003. UP

3D GIS Model of the Yellowknife Camp, or “There’s more gold out there” Garth Kirkham, Kirkham Geosystems Ltd., Vancouver, British Columbia, gdkirkham@shaw.ca Abstract — As an integral part of the EXTECHIII Project, a 3D GIS model has been created which encompasses the Con and Giant mines stretching along the Yellowknife Greenstone Belt. Historic mining areas such as the Yellowknife Camp have produced a great deal of gold in the past and they have been assumed to be at the end of their lives. However, with new ideas and technology, there is the potential to find additional resources not only to sustain the mining operations but also the communities that they support. The ultimate objective of the 3D GIS study is the creation of a 3D GIS model, which would form the basis for further studies in the area, especially in the context of future mineral development. A secondary objective is to retain the data in a digital format as both a historical reference, because it is a part of Canada’s rich mining history, and as a resource for future research and studies. Creating a 3D GIS model of the known, or at least the better understood, structures around and between the two active mine sites in the Yellowknife camp, forms an ideal basis for furthering the understanding of the genesis of the area. This in turn could result in improved targets for further exploration drilling and possibly an increase in the potential of further gold mining in the Yellowknife area. 3D GIS modelling activities have been undertaken at both the Con and Giant mines, separately. However, in both cases, the modelling has been limited to tracking the location of exploration drilling in 3D. Both sites have entered a certain amount of mining-related data into the 3D GIS systems, but this has been limited to locating mine workings and key geological features on 2D sections, which are not correctly referenced in 3D space. In addition, a wide variety of systems, formats, and coordinate systems have been used over the years. The advantage of creating a 3D GIS model of the whole Yellowknife Camp is that in one unified view, we may uncover correlations and interrelationships that have not previously been evident. UP

Geo-environmental ore deposit models as an aid for sustainable development Y.T. John Kwong, CANMET/MMSL, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Jkwong@NRCan.gc.ca Abstract — To exploit an ore deposit without unduly impacting the environment is a challenge, the meeting of which requires concerted efforts from traditionally independent teams working on a mining project. Not only is detailed geology required of the geologists to help the mine engineers to develop a mine plan that assures the generation of the least possible amount of mine waste, but metallurgists also have to select the most environmentally friendly mineral processing schemes and communicate with the environmental engineers with regard to additional complications that process chemicals may pose on proper mine waste management. Traditional ore deposit models emphasize the geological and mineralogical aspects of ore genesis to facilitate exploration of similar deposits. Recent research has shown that potential environmental liabilities like acid mine drainage and metal leaching can readily be predicted according to deposit types. The choice of mining methods, mineral processing schemes, and decommissioning options are also largely dictated by the composition and setting of an orebody to be mined. Integrating such related information into traditional ore deposit models leads to the development of comprehensive geo-environmental ore deposit models. The latter would facilitate communication among staff of the varied components of a mine project and aid with the selection of a combination of methods and strategies that would assure the least environmental risk and impact as well as enhance sustainable development. UP

Relevance of geoscience to mine waste management Y.T. John Kwong, CANMET/MMSL, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Jkwong@NRCan.gc.ca Abstract — Proper mine waste management to minimize or eliminate environmental risks and potential impacts is essential to sustainable mining development. Up until recently, engineering considerations have often taken precedence over other applied sciences in the development of mine waste disposal schemes. To demonstrate the relevance of geoscience information to mine waste management, three case studies are reviewed and discussed. First, most of the benefits of an otherwise excellent reclamation effort at the abandoned mine site on Mount Washington, British Columbia, have apparently been eliminated by an inadvertent failure to recognize the importance of local geology and style of mineralization in controlling sulfide weathering. Second, detailed tailings characterization has proved essential in developing an appropriate strategy for the permanent decommissioning of arsenic- and cyanide-bearing tailings impounded at Mount Nansen, Yukon Territory. Third, field and laboratory studies of massive sulfide tailings disposed offshore at two historic mine sites in northeastern Newfoundland have demonstrated that submarine tailings disposal is superior to land disposal under certain conditions. The devising of cost-effective schemes to safeguard the environment on the one hand and to sustain mining development on the other depends on the close cooperation of environmental engineers, exploration geologists, and researchers, as well as regulators. UP

The role of industry technical advisory committees in sustainable resource development Tom Lane, Canadian Mining Industry Research Organization (CAMIRO), Toronto, Ontario, tom.lane@sympatico.ca Abstract — The Canadian mineral industry historically over the past century and at present is vital to the national economy and, in particular, to the northern communities. Equally important is the increasing recognition of Canada as a politically stable source of essential and precious commodities, such as tantalum, tungsten, platinum group metals, and diamonds. Recent discoveries at Ekati, Voisey’s Bay, and Hudson Bay Lowlands attest that Canada remains a fertile ground for future discoveries by virtue of its resource-rich geology. Many mineral deposit discoveries in the first half of the century were found by prospecting. In the past 50 years, the majority of discoveries were the result of new technologies — electromagnetics, geochemistry, application of new mineral deposit concepts and indicator minerals in surficial sediments (e.g., Kidd Creek, Brunswick 12, and Ekati). New technologies will lead to future discoveries in Canada. The development and introduction of new technologies is commonly driven by a combination of pure research and entrepreneurship. A number of Canadian service companies have harnessed new ideas and made them applicable and popular in the industry; e.g., Lamontagne and Crone (downhole geophysics), Quantec/Mira (3D imagery), Overburden Drilling Management (indicator minerals). Committees of industry exploration experts and research coordinators play an essential role in fostering, marshalling, guiding, and focussing future research and field surveys to the development of new applications for discovery. At CAMIRO, expert committees in surficial geochemistry, geophysics, and geology/lithogeochemistry collectively identify needs of the industry, particularly the type of research that goes beyond the immediate “in-house” needs of the individual companies. Funds from a variety of sources can then be directed to development, understanding, and verification of new technologies that is beyond capabilities of service companies to undertake on their own. A large part of the success of CAMIRO projects is that they are funded and directed by interested corporate sponsors. CAMIRO can also play a vital role in identifying and fostering new initiatives for research groups and programs of geological surveys. Technical advisory councils have become a standard in federal and provincial surveys and some research councils. Recent government initiatives have required the advice and direction of industry experts (e.g., provincial government needs workshops, Federal-targeted geoscience initiatives, Industry Canada development funds, Ontario Mineral Exploration Technology grants). As the world-wide mining industry consolidates and corporate funds for research and technological development become scarce, there is a danger that the functions of advisory committees and, in particular, organizations such as CAMIRO will cease. As a result, exploration technology development and processes that lead to new discoveries will lose direction and emphasis. It is, thus, vital in these critical economic times to focus our attention on the future organization and preservation of these functions. UP

Sustainable development law in the minerals industry Karen McMaster, kmcmaster@lycos.com Abstract — The law is not stagnant — it is constantly evolving through the influences of regulators, the legal community, citizens, and corporations. As the sustainable development movement gains momentum in society, so too does the law related thereto. It imposes new obligations and creates new opportunities for many aspects of society. In mining, it is changing the way we do business. This presentation will explore how the law is driving change within our industry and how the industry can propel positive change and create opportunities through the law. Topics to be discussed include the development of sustainable development/sustainability law through conventions, regulations and case law, and the importance of contract law in its continued evolution within the mining industry. Particular attention will be given to legal agreements with external stakeholders including local communities, intra-company practices including corporate codes of conduct and employment contracts, and inter-company agreements, with a particular focus on joint venture agreements and how sustainability might be incorporated therein. The objective of the presentation is to generate ideas for further consideration. The information presented is not to be construed as legal advice. UP

Extending the Canadian resource base through new deposit types: The case for Fe-oxide-hosted Cu-Au and polymetallic deposits A. Hamid Mumin, Department of Geology, Brandon University, Brandon, Manitoba, mumin@brandonu.ca Abstract — Sustainable development depends in part upon the continued discovery and development of new resources. Previously unknown resource types that have never factored into calculations of the resource base exist in Canada (and elsewhere). A prime example is the recent development of a very successful and growing diamond industry. The original exploration was driven by the knowledge that similar geological terrain exists in Canada to those regions that host the major diamond fields elsewhere. For the same reasons it is projected that economic hydrothermal Fe-oxide-hosted copper-gold and polymetallic deposits (IOCG) will be discovered and developed. These deposits are economically and strategically very attractive targets because of their potential very large size, polymetallic nature with various combinations of Fe, Cu, Au, Ag, U, Co, Bi, and REE oxides, and location in remote areas. IOCG deposits were first recognized in Australia with the discovery and development of the giant Olympic Dam Cu-Au-U-Ag deposit. Major economic examples of this deposit type are now known to occur worldwide, including: Solobo Cu-Au in Brazil, Kiruna Fe-Cu in Sweden, Bayan Obo Fe and REE oxides in China, and Candelaria Cu-Au in Chile. These deposits originate from hydrothermal fluids associated with alkali-rich felsic to intermediate epizonal intrusions. Prospective environments include compressional and extensional volcano-plutonic terrains along present, paleo, and incipient continental margins. They share many similarities to porphyry-type deposits, with some important distinctions that include their sulfur-poor and Fe-oxide-rich nature. However, the most important distinction from the perspective of Canadian resource potential is their presence in rocks of all ages, with the great majority occurring in the Mid- to Early Proterozoic. Volcano-plutonic orogenic and extensional belts along the margins and within present and paleo-continents of Phanerozoic, Proterozoic, and Archean age are abundant, making Canada very prospective for these types of deposits. Canadian exploration for IOCG deposits was negligible prior to 1995. However, recent work in the southern Great Bear Magmatic Zone (GBMZ) of the Northwest Territories generated several discoveries, including the NICO Co-Au-Bi-Cu-W-Fe deposit, and expansion of the Sue-Dianne Cu-Ag deposit, a close analogue for Olympic Dam. Regions of Canada that are presently recognized for their IOCG potential include the whole of the GBMZ, the Wernecke mountains of the Yukon and the Batchawana region east of Lake Superior in Ontario. In addition, other projects are starting in Manitoba and elsewhere, and based on current interest in this deposit type by government, researchers, and the Canadian exploration industry, new discoveries are expected. UP

Mining and aquaculture: A sustainable venture? Fred A. Otchere, Jennifer J. Hinton, Department of Mining Engineering, UBC, Vancouver, BC Carlos Gomez-Galindo, Luis O. Afonso, Department of Animal Science, UBC, Vancouver, BC Patricia L. Keen & Marcello M. Veiga, Department of Mining Engineering, UBC, Vancouver, BC, veiga@ mining.ubc.ca Abstract — The legacy of mine closure is emerging as a crucial aspect of mine planning. Progress toward sustainability is made when value is added to the local environment to contribute toward the ecological, social, and economic well being of the community. As flooding of open pits after mining operations is a widely recommended measure for metal mines to inhibit the generation of acid rock drainage (ARD), unconventional uses of these artificial lakes should be explored. Developing aquaculture within flooded open pits and tailings impoundments is in line with government policies for reclamation, restoration, and sustainable development required of mining companies. In addition, aquaculture in a controlled environment may be more acceptable to critics of fish farming who are concerned about fish escapes and viral transmissions to wild populations. Activities that support the advancement of alternative livelihoods are an effective means of contributing to sustainable development in the local community; aquaculture may provide an important long-term economic activity for inhabitants of communities around inactive large-scale and small-scale (i.e., artisanal) mines. This paper explores the potential to use the legacies of mining operations (specifically, open pits and tailing ponds) toward the farming of fish for commercial or recreational purposes as an effective means to prevent and mitigate the socio-economic conditions left to the surrounding communities. The benefits and costs associated with mining and aquaculture and some of the logistics related to this venture are also considered. UP

Application of sustainable development in the aggregates resource sector Don Peel & Jeremy Richards, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, rockitscience@shaw.ca, Jeremy.Richards@ualberta.ca Abstract — Aggregate resources hold the top spot for world mineral consumption rates. As an example, over the next fifty years, Alberta will depend on the aggregate industry to produce 5 billion tonnes of aggregate to maintain and develop the province’s infrastructure. Most of the aggregate resources will come from sand and gravel deposits laid down by fluvial processes of the late Tertiary to Recent times. The extraction of that amount of resource conservatively equates to approximately 1500 km2 of surface disturbance, usually associated with environmentally sensitive areas. The transport of the resource, which generates large amounts of greenhouse gases, along with aggregate’s relationship to the water resources, are two other significant factors that have to be added into the sustainable development equation. On the supply side, “gravel deposits of Alberta are being depleted faster than the approval rate.” Not only are strategic gravel sources being consumed at record rates, “sterilization” of marketable aggregate resources is occurring through public opposition to extraction activities and land conservation/use that reduce or deny access to valuable aggregate resources. Geological information and interpretation has been used minimally in the exploration methods due to the resource’s near surface relationship and as the deposits are being extracted, little geological information is being captured. The complex substrata created by the advancement and retreat of the continental glaciers over a large portion of North America has significant implications for resource management to achieve sustainable development. Obtaining the geological information to construct the sequencing of sub-surface formations will lead to the discovery of new aggregate deposits and will aid in designing extraction operations with the least environmental impact. The aggregate resource sector presents a significant opportunity for geological practitioners to become involved in solving the formula for achieving sustainable development. UP

An integrated sustainable approach to a placer operation in the Lower Caroni River, Venezuela Maria Claudia Sandoval & Marcello M. Veiga, Department of Mining Engineering, UBC, Vancouver, BC Stanley Sandner, Cadre Resources Ltd., Vancouver, British Columbia, maclasavi@hotmail.com Abstract — Mining companies are frequently required to demonstrate their commitment to improve social conditions and responsible environmental stewardship in the communities where they operate. The Caroni River, located in the State of Bolivar, Venezuela, has an extensive history of poverty associated with environmental degradation by thousands of artisanal miners that for more than 50 years have extracted 4 t of gold from the placer deposits and dumped over 4 t of mercury into the river. Methylation and bio-accumulation of mercury have already been reported. Through a unique approach, a Vancouver-based mining company reformulated the objectives of its operation to incorporate concepts of sustainable mining to extract gold, diamonds, ilmenite and yet create markets for the processing tailings (i.e., sand and gravel). The residual mercury will also be extracted from the bottom sediments by gravity and leaching processes to be immobilized and safely disposed. The project intends to dredge 10 Mt of sediments per annum, and will also promote agriculture and aquaculture in the region to diversify the local economy, make good use of the dredged water, and create an alternative source of uncontaminated food for locals. Aspects of the environmental and social impact assessment of this project are discussed as well as the risks and benefits for the region. UP

Collaborative research on sustainability in mining Malcolm Scoble, Department of Mining Engineering, UBC, Vancouver, British Columbia, malcolms@interchange.ubc.ca Abstract — This presentation addresses the interface between academia and industry, government and other potential partners in collaborative research for sustainability in mining. Academia represents a diverse, multi-disciplinary resource that is potentially powerful yet dispersed and uncoordinated. The presentation also explores the possible modes for collaboration and attempts to identify mechanisms for future initiatives. Reference is made to past attempts to secure federal funding for a Network in Sustainable Mining in the NCE Program. UP

Sustainable development in Nunavut: The role of geoscience Ross Sherlock & David Scott, Canada-Nunavut Geoscience Office, Nunavut, sherlock@nrcan.gc.ca Gordon MacKay, Minerals Oil and Gas, Department of Sustainable Development, Government of Nunavut, Iqaluit, Nunavut Abstract — The current demographics in Nunavut are not sustainable. There is a very young, poorly educated population that is widely distributed in isolated communities. These young Nunavummiut will enter the work force and require well paid jobs to support their choice of a modern lifestyle in their respective communities. This will require a significant shift in the current economic profile to support these demographics. Given the realities of Nunavut, there are limited directions in which the economy may expand. Nunavut’s industrial potential is limited by its isolation from potential markets and high infrastructure costs including housing, fuel, and transportation. Conventional manufacturing and exporting of products is not, in general, an option for Nunavut unless it fills some highly specialized niche market. Public sector employment and tourism play a role in the economy of Nunavut; however, their ability to expand and cope with the emerging labor market is limited. Mineral exploration, development and associated industries are predicted to be the major growth sector in Nunavut’s economy, which will supply the needed opportunities to support the emerging work force. However, these opportunities will not materialize without government support and encouragement along several avenues, one of which is establishing a modern framework of geoscience knowledge. Currently, it is estimated that only ~30% of Nunavut is adequately mapped at a 1:250,000 scale with value-added products to support exploration decisions and other land use planning issues. An additional 35% of the territory requires additional work to bring the mapping and value-added information up to a standard competitive with the rest of Canada. The rest of the territory (35%) is considered unmapped at 1:250,000 scale. The overall goal of government-supported geoscience is to create opportunities, for individuals as well as corporations. Individuals, in the local communities, gain through increased economic activity related to exploration and development and companies gain by the provision of an improved geoscience framework from which to conduct exploration and development activities. This can only be achieved through government-funded geoscience programs, such as framework mapping and directed thematic programs. The private sector will not fund these programs; they will simply select equally prospective jurisdictions that have a more advanced geoscience knowledge base as a means of reducing their exploration risk. Nunavut is competing worldwide for exploration dollars; exploration and mining companies can go anywhere in the world to explore and develop mineral deposits. To be competitive, among other issues, Nunavut needs to demonstrate mineral potential as well as develop and maintain a high-quality geoscience knowledge base that is available in a modern (digital) and easily accessible framework. This allows companies to be more selective and effective in their exploration to reduce risk and maximize reward. Government geoscience needs to make the decision to explore in Nunavut easy. It may be difficult to quantify the actual value of mapping and associated thematic studies, but it is easy to examine the corollary. If we do not continue mapping and producing new and pragmatic geoscience results then we are not competitive with many other jurisdictions in the world and Nunavut will not attract exploration dollars. New mines and projects will not be developed and Nunavummiut will not benefit from these opportunities. UP

Non-metals mining — What the future will bring George J. Simandl, British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, University of Victoria, george.simandl@gems2.gov.bc.ca Abstract — The term “Non-Metals” (NMs), as used below, comprises both industrial minerals and rocks. Traditionally, highly priced NMs were considered as world travelers, whereas, low-cost NMs were sold locally. Today, the competition is becoming globalized. Therefore, the importance of the geographic distribution of raw materials is being reduced due to the effects of trading blocks, government initiatives, differences in environmental regulations between developed and developing countries, labor costs, trade barriers, anti-dumping tariffs and restricted access to mineral-bearing lands. NMs are an important part of the Canadian economy. In 2000, NM production in Canada exceeded $7 billion. From 1991 to 2000, it grew by 35.7%, while metals production grew by 5.5%. In the short term, environmental regulations appear to have a negative impact on metal mining: they increase operating costs of metal mining and processing. However, their effect on NMs is not so straightforward. For example, natural gypsum and sulfur are being replaced by synthetic equivalents derived from power plant desulfurization processes and hydrocarbon fuel refining. Environmental regulations also create opportunities for minerals used in toxic spill cleanups, water treatment plants, acid drainage neutralization, and municipal, industrial, and mine-related waste disposal. Zeolite, perlite, vermiculite, bentonite, calcium carbonate, lime, magnesite/magnesia, and diatomite are examples. Airborne dust particle regulations have limited the use of silica and asbestos. Garnet, olivine, magnetite, and slag substitute for silica as an abrasive as well as sandblasting media. The main asbestos substitutes are fiberglass, cellulose and ceramic, carbon, and aramid fibers. Asbestos substitutes in non-fibrous fireproofing, filtration, insulation, and friction materials are ATH, wollastonite, diatomite, perlite, vermiculite, pumice, alumina/emery, and garnet, to name a few. Climate change is a hot topic and current efforts to curb greenhouse gases will continue whether or not the Kyoto agreement is ratified by the United States and Canada. Extensive research will have to be undertaken in this field and some of it is already under way, including potential use of serpentine and olivine in CO2 sequestration. “Land sterilization” and recycling: Urbanization limits access to construction materials near major population centers. It creates opportunities for recycling and for distal suppliers along low-cost transportation corridors. For example, the California, Seattle, and Vancouver areas are markets for structural materials from the British Columbia coast. In other cases, recycling of NMs is not linked to urbanization and may be driven in part by raw material shortage, and the high cost associated with disposal of spent materials. Some wastes are processed at profit; in other cases, such action reduces future liabilities and costs associated with mining and processing. For example, slag treated as waste for centuries at processing plants has become one of the preferred sources of iron in the cement industry; it is also used as a sand blasting medium. Tantalum (a high-tech metal essential in wireless communication) is being recovered from tin mining wastes in Thailand and Brazil. In British Columbia, magnetite is recovered from tailings for use in coal washing. Closer to “home” materials such as glass, plastic, paper, asphalt, concrete, and wallboard are recycled, reducing the need for primary resources. Technological developments have had a major impact on NM markets in the past and their impact may be even larger in the future. Increased use of composite materials, the change from acid to neutral paper making in North America, the surge in wireless communications, etc., are good examples of established trends. Current trends toward “Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements” standards, and increased use of flame-retardants also modify industrial mineral markets. In summary, from the exploration point of view, it is expected that in industrialized countries opportunities for NM mining will continue to outpace those for metals. NM mining and markets are influenced to a large extent by public perception, legislated regulations, land sterilization and international trade agreements. Consequently, as the world’s population grows, more public education covering the use of minerals in everyday life is needed to preserve access to land for mining purposes. Material research aimed at finding industrial or construction uses for existing and future mine and processing wastes, environmental rehabilitation, and recycling are already essential for sustainability of NM resources and mining in industrialized countries. The same standards will be applied in the developing countries in the future. UP

Sustainability following the Steep Rock Iron Mines closure — Back to the future? Victor A. Sowa, Jacques Whitford and Associates Ltd., Vancouver, British Columbia, vsowa@jacqueswhitford.com Abstract — The largest undeveloped and the richest deposit of hematite iron ore on the North American continent was discovered in 1938 beneath Steep Rock Lake, near Atikokan, Ontario. Stimulus for the development of the mine came during World War II when steel mills were facing a critical shortage of iron ore. Development of the Steep Rock Iron Mines commenced on an accelerated basis, authorized under Canada’s War Measures Act. Since the iron ore was beneath Steep Rock Lake, the development of the open pit mines required a massive water diversion scheme, including the diversion of the Seine River, drainage of Steep Rock Lake, construction of various dams and other diversion works, and dredging of the soft lake-bottom sediments to expose the iron ore. The mining project, at the time, was the largest mega-project of its type undertaken in Canada. Could such a project meet sustainability issues today? While much of the current emphasis on mining sustainability is being directed toward new concepts and procedures, it is worthwhile to examine some successful past practices. This is done for the Steep Rock Iron Mines that ceased operations 23 years ago. The issue of the sustainability following mine closure is examined, bearing in mind the history of accelerated development at this mine at a time when sustainability, in current terms, was not a priority. The three components of sustainability considered are environmental, economic, and social. Fifty-five years after mine construction commenced, there are no major immediate environmental issues. The Seine River remains as one of the best sports fishing rivers in northwestern Ontario. Fish also co-exist with 90 million m3 of dredged lake-bottom sediments which were discharged into a retention basin, and a successful fish farm operates in one of the abandoned 300 m deep open pit mines. Examples of economic sustainability following mine closure include a sawmill operation established in one of the abandoned mining buildings, a market garden established on the bottom of the dewatered lake, a thermal power plant utilizing an impounded water reservoir (a by-product of river diversion) for cooling water, and a hydro-electric plant which was constructed on the diverted Seine River channel. On a social basis the mine left beneficial infrastructure, including local roads, a railway spur line, a ski hill, and an ore loading dock at Thunder Bay. The presentation will briefly describe the general history of the project and the sustainability aspects noted above. UP

Social aspects of mining Ian Thomson, On Common Ground Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, rockdoc@direct.ca Abstract — Worldwide, mining is faced with a pattern of low credibility and social opposition, which derives from a general perception that mining is dirty business. Mining is seen as inherently destructive, destroying the environment and leaving nothing positive behind when it leaves — as it will when the resource is exhausted. The image of abandoned mines, waste dumps and tailings dams, and abandoned communities has significant resonance with the general public. Mining is also seen as creating wealth for an elite that lives in cities and countries far from the mine site. The local community takes all the social and environmental risks and receives, at best, token benefits. It is apparent that social issues have emerged as the most significant challenge to the mining industry as we enter the new millennium, and thus must be addressed constructively. Furthermore, social aspects form the third leg of the sustainable development triad, and engagement with the community and other stakeholders is the central process in reaching sustainable development objectives. But, community relations, communications, and the management of social risks are not taught in any institution normally attended by geoscientists. As a result, the majority of explorers, although well intentioned, are poorly equipped to deal with the challenge presented by cultural and social issues. There is considerable need and, indeed, value in incorporating these skills into the exploration team. Failure to do so could mean that a project is delayed, disrupted or forced into abandonment because of opposition from the local community and other stakeholders. The presentation will look at the principal factors driving social issues around mining and then discuss the special challenges of the exploration phase — managing uncertainty and transience, expectations, and social, economic, and cultural stress. UP

Attaining the ‘Licence to Operate’ — Sustainability in exploration Neil Westoll, PDAC, Environmental Excellence in Exploration (E3) nwestolle3@cogeco.ca Tony Andrews, PDAC, aandrews@pdac.ca Bill Mercer, Noranda Inc., PDAC, mercerb@normin.com Jamie Robertson, North America and Greenland, Falconbridge Limited; Lands Committee, PDAC, jrobertson@falconbridge.com Abstract — The concept of sustainability in exploration is different from that at a mine, in that exploration normally has less effect and a shorter life span in any one location. What we mean by sustainability as applied to exploration, as opposed to mining, is that the present generation is positively impacted and future generations are not negatively impacted. The activities of mining companies are increasingly under scrutiny by various groups — the World Bank, governments, NGOs, etc. In addition, negative actions by one company impact all companies through the image of the industry with the public and governments. As a result, companies are turning to industry-adopted voluntary codes in order to achieve higher levels of practice in areas of common interest. In this paper, examples of field experience of Falconbridge and Noranda are given to show the current state of environmental practice for exploration in a large company. Also the challenges for companies are discussed. In 2000, a group of major companies asked the PDAC if it would manage the process of developing a set of environmental best practices. The PDAC is now driving the process and has called it Environmental Excellence in Exploration or E3. It will enable companies to access a shared knowledge base regarding environmental best practices worldwide. This E3 initiative will address the environmental issues related to exploration in the field. However, industry needs to develop a strategy to deal with the larger issue of land use in order to maintain access to land, reduce conflict and to develop a scientific basis for land management decisions. One possible methodology is termed Landscape Management and the PDAC is examining this and other alternatives as a future association policy direction. This cannot be driven by the mining industry alone but must involve other resource industries, governments and other stakeholders. UP

Alternative fertilizer resources for Argentina Liliana Castro & Selvia Tourn, Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina, lilianacastro@fibertel.com.ar, selvia@gl.fcen.uba.ar Abstract — Argentina, a large agricultural country, needs an ever-increasing amount of phosphorus and potassium, as essential elements for plant growth to improve crop yields. For attaining and maintaining self-sufficiency in food grain production, fertilizers have played an important role in Argentine agriculture. Current requirements are met from imports mainly from the United States and other countries. Since 1970, a systematic prospecting of sedimentary phosphates was first carried out by the Argentine Geological Survey and then by the Department of Geology, University of Buenos Aires, during which many areas showed mineral potential. This research is still being undertaken at present by the last group of investigators, re-prospecting the already identified areas, and discovering new ones especially in Patagonia, southern Argentina. Although several phosphatic levels were found in Tertiary units, the deposits are still sub-economic. In spite of this, several assays were done to test the material as slow-release, direct-application fertilizers, with good results. On the other hand, Argentina has two types of potassium deposits. One of them is an evaporite level at Neuquén Basin between 750 m to 1500 m in depth of KCl, which is a potential project although not ready for start-up. The other is glauconitic sandstone, with more than 4% of K2O as an alternative source of potash identified in Salamanca Formation. This Paleocene marine unit of the San Jorge Basin contains apatite and glauconite mineral facies. It is mainly composed of poorly consolidated gray and greenish (light olive) sandstones and mudstones, with subordinated very fine conglomerates. The greensand levels (0.5 m to 5 m width) occur very near to the surface with little or no overburden and are widespread in the southeast area of Chubut province, Argentina. Glauconite grains occur in all of sand size fractions and are dispersed in all of the sequences in varying concentration reaching to 70% of the grain population. The proposal is to study both elements, phosphorus and potassium, as direct application fertilizers as they are found in the same area. It is well known that green sands have successfully been used as a slow-acting potassium fertilizer, especially in acid soils, by direct application to agricultural fields during the second world war; also, a fertilizer which contains more than 90% glauconite, rich in potassium and micro-nutrients is currently being applied in Denmark. The application in the fields is found to be economical as well as ecological, as there is no chemical treatment involved. The lost of potassium from glauconite due to drainage, leaching, and percolation is less compared to marine potash salts. Initially, the glauconitic sandstone could be used in combination with other fertilizers and compost manure; of course, no chemical fertilizer as a primary source of potash will be used so that the performance of glauconitic sandstone may be widely established. Isodynamic magnetic separation or other suitable magnetic separation techniques is recommended to concentrate ferromagnesian glauconite mineral from the associated gangue minerals comprising quartz, feldspar, calcite, and clays. No water washing should be recommended, as part of soluble potash would be lost. In conclusion, glauconite would provide an effective and economic alternative source of potassium fertilizer. This would be the first introduction of the mineral glauconite to the Argentine market for its agricultural use. On the other hand, assayed phosphate rocks gave good results in direct applications, although up to now, the phosphate levels are not enough to be considered an ore deposit. As phosphorus is the main critical nutrient, it is important to look for this resource in order to reach self-sufficiency in the near future, and we think that Patagonia has the best prospects. If this proposal were advanced, it would help in generation of employment and socio-economic development of the southeast of the country where few activities are originated. UP

Cultural heritage conservation in sustainable mining Callum Thomson, Jacques Whitford Environment Limited, Calgary, Alberta, cthomson@jacqueswhitford.com Abstract — Sustainable mining practices and theory incorporate environmental conservation strategies and objectives. Mineral exploration geologists, geophysicists, and other field scientists are able, through their wide-ranging field programs, to support the sustainability of Canada’s cultural heritage in mineral exploration and mine development areas through the discovery, reporting, and protection of archaeological sites. Heritage legislation in Canada is variable from jurisdiction to jurisdiction as it pertains to mineral exploration and winter access road construction activities; in most provinces and territories, sites are protected by law, but often go unrecognized, especially during the early stages of mineral exploration. Unfortunately, there are often affinities between exploration and geophysical targets and winter road portage routes, and prehistoric/historic period site locations, with consequent potential for negative effects of these activities on archaeological sites. Archaeologists use archaeological overview assessment to identify known site locations and a field reconnaissance or survey to locate new archaeological sites in proscribed exploration areas and along narrow winter access routes. But these projects are defined by the limits of the proponent’s activities and large areas of the country, particularly in the North, remain unknown archaeologically. Education programs are used by concerned exploration firms to brief field crews on site recognition and reporting tips so that the exploration scientist can document, interpret, and protect the region’s archaeological heritage for the benefit of present and future generations. Geophysicists and other field scientists are encouraged to support these cultural heritage conservation objectives by learning site recognition techniques, making notes on site locations and reporting them to regulatory authorities, and avoiding any site disturbance. Conversely, archaeologists should be encouraged to recognize and report field occurrences and anomalies that might be of interest to the mining community. The benefits of aboriginal participation in archaeological and geoscientific field research and the incorporation of traditional knowledge to augment or contrast with the scientific knowledge should also be considered, as interpretation of site function, age, and seasonality by experienced aboriginal land users is of great value, and both field teams and communities benefit from the positive interaction. In conclusion, workshop participants could discuss future directions for cultural heritage conserva